14  Making Maps

14.1 Cartography is not neutral

Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Maps are the most common output of a GIS analysis because they allow you to retain the spatiality of the results. While maps are generally presented as objective versions of reality, they are deeply shaped by social, political, and cultural forces. Critical cartography, which is a companion thread of academic thinking as critical GIS, argues that map creation is a power-laden practice. Although cartography has historically been associated with precision and technical authority, each map reflects the goals of the cartographer, who has the power to pick what is put on a map and how it is represented. Harley (1989), a scholar who is largely credited with the origins of critical cartography, argues that maps are not passive representations of spatial reality, they actively construct the world they describe.

As Wood (2003) writes, “maps work”, meaning that they do not simply represent space, but actively shape how space is imagined, governed, and contested. Historically, the authority to create maps belonged to powerful institutions, including imperial governments, military regimes, and national surveying agencies. Cartography was largely a tool of governance, used to inscribe the priorities of those in power onto the landscape. Colonial powers, for instance, employed mapping to fix borders, catalog lands, and make Indigenous territories legible for exploitation. By rendering land as empty, available, or bounded in specific ways, these maps facilitated resource extraction, taxation, settlement, and military control. In many cases, they were also deeply ideological, projecting European spatial norms (grids, parcels, ownership) onto different understandings of space. 

Even in the present, maps continue to legitimize and reinforce dominant spatial orders. State-produced cadastral maps formalize land ownership and enable governance and taxation. Zoning maps shape where homes, businesses, and industry are allowed. Infrastructure planning maps guide decisions about roads, utilities, and development. In these ways, maps remain deeply political, shaping whose spaces are visible, whose knowledge counts, and whose claims to land are recognized or erased.

In the past two decades, the rise of digital mapping has redistributed some cartographic power. Now, instead of the state, corporations like Google and Apple are now the dominant producers of maps used in everyday life. Their mapping platforms shape how we navigate, what we see, and what we don’t. Google Maps, for instance, makes decisions about which businesses show up in search results, which routes are recommended, and how disputed territories are labeled. These are not just technical decisions, they are political and social ones made largely outside of the public eye. 

At the same time, the ability to make maps has become more accessible. With tools like GIS software and OpenStreetMap the public now has far greater capacity to produce spatial data and visualize it. This has led to a proliferation of maps produced outside traditional institutions. The ability to map is no longer limited to the state or to experts. But access doesn’t automatically translate to power. The visibility and influence of a map still depend on its circulation, uptake, and who controls the underlying platforms and data. Therefore, what we’re seeing is not a simple democratization of cartography, but a reconfiguration of its power. 

14.2 Designing Maps

For this section, I will defer to an excellent open-access textbook

Making Effective Maps: Cartographic Visualization for GIS

14.3 Counter Mapping and Community Mapping

There exists alternatives to the western cartographic practice which considers maps to be an objective “view from nowhere” representation of reality and employs a standardized cartesian thinking of space. These alternatives offer the opportunity to use mapmaking (Denis Wood says “cartography is dead (thank God!)” to question power and map otherwise. Countermapping refers to mapping practices that intentionally subvert or rework dominant mapping conventions in order to assert alternative spatial knowledge, often rooted in the lived experiences, struggles, and priorities of marginalized communities. Community mapping emphasizes partnerships between technically trained cartographers and local communities to support grassroots goals, such as reclaiming historical memory, resisting displacement, or asserting Indigenous land claims, while working to deconstruct power imbalances within the mapping process itself.

UNC disOrientation

From the Rock Wall

Anti-Eviction Mapping Project

The Decolonial Atlas

Orangotango

Iconoclasistas

14.4 Cartographic Design Guide

14.4.1 Step 1: Brainstorm

The following factors will guide the cartographic design process:

• Audience: Who will be using the map? Are they experts, general public, students, or policymakers? Understanding your audience helps shape the complexity and readability of the map.
• Medium: Will the map be printed, displayed digitally, or used interactively? Different formats require different design considerations.
• Purpose: What message or information should the map convey? Is it for navigation, analysis, storytelling, or communication of patterns?

14.4.2 Step 2: Decide What Information to Display on the Map

• Identify key elements that must be included. These might be:
  • Natural features (rivers, mountains, forests)
  • Human-made features (roads, buildings, infrastructure)
  • Thematic data (population density, weather patterns, election results)
• Each selected feature must directly contribute to the map’s message.
• Avoid excessive details—simplicity improves comprehension.
• Too much information increases cognitive load and can reduce effectiveness.

14.4.3 Step 3: Decide How to Display Information on the Map

• Symbols should be intuitive and align with user expectations.
• Ensure symbols are legible and not cluttered.
• Reduce bottom-up processing—make it easy for users to recognize patterns without extensive thought.
• Reference features (e.g., roads, rivers) should use conventional, functional, or conceptual symbols.
• Thematic data should use visual variables. 
  • Choose these visual variables based on data types:
    • Categorical Data: Use different shapes, colors, or patterns.
    • Ordinal Data: Use variations in size or color intensity.
    • Continuous Data: Consider graduated color schemes or proportional symbols.
• It is often necessary to categorize continuous data. Choose a classification method that accurately represents data distribution
  • Equal Interval: Divides range into equal-sized segments.
  • Quantile: Each category contains an equal number of data points.
  • Natural Breaks (Jenks): Groups similar values together.
  • Manual: Custom classifications for specific needs.
• Choose a classification method that accurately represents data distribution.
• Color should enhance comprehension, not create confusion.
  • Sequential palettes for ordered data.
  • Diverging palettes to show variation from a central value.
  • Categorical palettes for distinct groups.
• Ensure colors do not overpower or obscure key map features.
• Ensure colors are harmonious
• Consider colorblind-friendly palettes

14.4.4 Step 4: Layout the Map and Add Map Elements

• Most important features should stand out (figure-ground).
  • Background elements should be subtle to avoid distraction.
  • Contrast and transparency help differentiate primary and secondary elements.
• Ensure a proper zoom level. Key information should not be cut off or too close to the edge.
  • Center important features for focus.
  • White space should be well distributed—avoid overcrowding.
• Map elements:
  • Scale Bar
    • Should end on a logical, round number.
    • Use a meaningful unit of measurement
  • Title
    • Should be descriptive yet succinct.
    • Typically placed at the top of the map.
    • Title frames/backgrounds are optional based on user preference.
  • Metadata
    • Include essential details in a text box in the layout:
      • Author’s name
      • Data source
      • Basemap source (if used)
      • Coordinate system
  • Frameline
    • Maintain space between the data frame and the page edge.
    • The data frame should be centered both horizontally and vertically.
    • The data frame should have a clear outline to improve focus.
  • Legend
    • Must have clear and descriptive labels (not just layer names).
    • Only include layers that are actively displayed.
    • Round values appropriately (e.g., “5.23” → “5.2” or “5”).
    • Do not include basemap names—mention basemap sources in Metadata instead.
  • North Arrow
    • Not always necessary. Use the following guidance:
      • If map is oriented north-up, a north arrow may be unnecessary.
      • If orientation differs from convention, include a north arrow.
  • Basemap
    • Not always necessary
    • Should be purpose driven (adds, doesn’t detract, from map comprehension
    • Illegible labels are common in QGIS basemaps.
    • Solutions
      • Use unlabeled basemaps if labels are unnecessary.
      • Find a readable basemap.
      • Use custom labeling tools to improve label clarity.
  • Text and Labeling
    • Labels should add valuable information, not clutter.
    • Follow conventional text placement (e.g., rivers labeled along their curves).
    • Use rule-based labeling where needed (e.g., QuickOSM for OpenStreetMap data).
    • All text should be readable on a standard laptop screen.
    • Avoid fonts that are too small or overly decorative.

Harley, J B. 1989. “Deconstructing the Map.” Cartographica The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization 26 (2): 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3138/e635-7827-1757-9t53.

Wood, D. 2003. “Cartography Is Dead (Thank God!).” Cartographic Perspectives, January, 4–7. https://doi.org/10.14714/CP45.497.